Hamamatsu-Toyohashi JALT Chapters Joint Conference 2010

Learners' Acquisition Of Language at Different Stages of Development

Sunday, July 18^th Maisaka Bunka Center Hamanako Japan

Sailing A Different Course: Adult Learning, Theory and Practice

Martha Robertson, Aichi University and Jim Matchett Hokuriku University

What We Know About Adults and Learning Martha Robertson

In the 1950's, when many adults were retuning to complete educations disrupted by the Second World War, American educators began to realize that teachers of adults have a different task than teachers of children. In 1973, Malcolm S. Knowles wrote the first major study of adult education, called The Adult Learner: A Neglected Species. In this book, Knowles set forth common characteristics of adult learners and recommended teaching practices that build upon the strengths adult learners bring to the learning environment. He called this approach to teaching andragogy- (man-educating or leading) as opposed to pedagagogy (child-educating or leading).

I. Profile of an adult learner

Knowles lists five characteristics that he believed true of adult learners:

Self-Concept = Adults view themselves as autonomous beings, capable of accepting responsibility and directing their own lives.

Experience = Adults bring a rich resource of life experience to the learning situation.

Readiness = Adults desire to learn things that will broaden their role in society and advance their professional or personal life.

Orientation = Adults value knowledge that they can apply in the immediate future.

Motivation = Adults' motivation to learn is internal ((Knowles 1984:12).

Learning goals and objectives

Because of who adults are, what they value, and how they learn, Knowles recommends different goals for adult education than those accepted for educating children.

• Practice acceptance, love, and respect toward others

• Hold a dynamic attitude toward life

• React to causes, not symptoms, of behavior

• Acquire skills that contribute to well-being of self and society

• Understand the heritage of knowledge and the essential values that comprise the human experience

• Understand their society and become skillful in directing social change

Knowles' objectives point to a shift from learning as a product to learning as a process. How learners engage with information and how the information will be used are of concern. Knowles believes that problem-centered instruction, in which adults work with others to contextualize learning and bring their life-experience to the task, is more effective than teacher-centered, subject-based methods of instruction.

Teaching Principles for Andragogy

• Explain why the information is important to learn

• Show learners how to direct their learning

• Relate the topic to learners' experiences

• Respect learners' motivation to learn

• Help learners overcome barriers to learning

(Conner, M. L. (1997) Andragogy and Pedagogy)

Knowles later acknowledges that four of Andragogy's key assumptions apply equally to children, and he advocates the above strategies for all ages. (The only difference is that children have fewer life experiences to bring to the table.)

II. Carl Rogers and Humanistic education

Carl Rogers ( 1902- 1987) an influential American psychologist, popularized the concept of student-centered learning, Rogers believed:

1. Learners will learn best what they want and need to know

2, Knowing how to learn is more important than having a lot of knowledge

3. Self-evaluation is the only meaningful evaluation of a learner's work

4. Feelings are as important as facts

5. Learners learn best in a non-threatening environment

Rogers believed there are two kinds of learning: Rote learning, characterized by memorization and drill, and Significant learning, or experiential learning that has personal meaning and is important for everyday life. Significant learning is self-initiated, involves the whole person, and is evaluated by the learner in terms of his/her needs.

Rogers also contrasted two approaches to learning: teaching and facilitating. Most schooling centers upon the teacher. The teacher plans the classes, directs the learning, imparts information and evaluates the learning outcomes. Rogers has little value for this approach to instruction, as the results are short lived and learners real needs are not being met. Rogers calls for a shift from teacher-centered, subject-centered learning to meaningful, self-directed learning, which reflects Knowles Principles of Adult Learning.

Facilitation = Creating the environment for engagement

The goal of facilitative teaching is to develop a community of learners in which natural curiosity is stimulated and everything is open to questioning and exploration. The teacher is a member of that community, participating as an equal, a resource, and a guide.

The facilitator's role is to encourage exploration of ideas, stimulate engagement with the content, deepen understanding, and enable learners to move on.

Methods for Facilitative Teaching

Build upon meaningful content, real-world issues

Provide resources for self- development and self-directed learning

Offer alternatives to conventional instruction

Encourage collaborative learning

Encourage inquiry and problem-solving

Encourage alternative sources for foundation knowledge

Alternative Modes of Assessment for Facilitative Teaching

1. Assessment of students' learning emphasizes upon what learners understand and have integrated, rather than what learners are able to recall or reproduce.

2. Assessment tools emphasize what students have learned over time rather than measuring one student's performance against another.

3. Assessment reveals students' strengths rather than their lacks.

4. Assessment tools allow for individual differences and preferences in learning styles, language proficiency, cultural and educational backgrounds.

III. Teaching an old dog new tricks

“The greatest obstacle to older adult language learning,” according to Professor Mary Schleppergrell, “is the doubt- in the minds of both learner and teacher.”

Language learning and aging myth-busters:

Recent studies show that older adults can learn foreign languages as well as younger adults, and even better than children, if certain accommodations are made.

1. There is little or no decline in ability to learn as people get older (Oswald and Williams, 1981; Merriam, 2001)

2. Except for health factors such as hearing or vision loss, the age of the adult learner is not important for gaining facility in a foreign language (Schleppergrell, 1978)

3. Older adults learn differently, but just as effectively as younger adults (Mosely and Dessinger 2007; Weinstein-shr 1993)

4. Adults may progress more rapidly than children in the early stages of language learning (Krashen and Scarella. 1979).

5. Language learning may actually prevent decline of cognitive abilities often associated with aging. (Mosely and Dessinger 2007)

(See Schleppergrell for complete citations for above references.)

Barriers to Learning for Older Adults

Older adults may have hearing or vision loss that interfere with learning

Older adults are less tolerant of uncomfortable physical environments

Older adults may find it difficult to concentrate for long periods

Older adults rely upon long-term memory rather than short-term memory used for rote- learning

Speed of recall and integration may be slower in older adults (although in terms of language structure and semantics, adults are quicker)

Classroom practices

Avoid oral drills and memorization that rely on short-term memory

Avoid fast-paced drills and competitive exercises

Reduce focus on error correction

Provide opportunities for learners to work together to integrate new information

Emphasize development of receptive skills before productive skills

Allow different approaches to the learning task

Introduce strategies for studying and organizing information

Remember:

Older adults learn best by integrating new information into previously learned cognitive structures.

Speed of learning may be slower, but understanding is deeper.

Understanding of grammatical structures and semantic relationships develop with age.

Conclusion: Many of the practices and approaches recommended for adult learners make sense for learners of any age. When we understand that curiosity about the world and how it works is part of being human, perhaps we will trust children and adults to actively pursue knowledge in ways that best meet their own personal needs and goals.

Selected References for Further Reading

Clark, D. (2010). Bloom's taxonomy of learning domains. Retrieved fromhttp://nwlink.com/~donclark/about/about.html

Conner, M. L. (1995). “How adults learn.” Retrieved 10 July 2010 from http://agelesslearner.com/intros/adultlearning.html

Edmunds C., Lowe, K., Murray, M., & Seymour, A. (1999) The Ultimate Educator: Achieving Maximum Adult Learning through Training and Instruction. Washington, D.C.: US Department of Justice. Retrieved July 10, 2010 from http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/ovc/assist/educator/welcome.html

Knowles,M. S. (1973; 1990) The Adult Learner: A Neglected Species. Houston: Gulf Publishing.

Krashen, S. D., Long. M.A., & Scarcella, R. C. (1979). “Age, rate, and eventual attainment in second language acquisition.” TESOL Quarterly 13, 573-582.

Patterson, C.H. (1977). “Carl Rogers and Humanistic Education“. Foundations for a Theory of Instructional and Educational Psychology. Harper & Row.

Rogers, C. and Freiberg, H. J. (1993) Freedom to Learn (3rd ed.), New York: Merrill.

Schleppergrell, M. (1987). The Older Language Learner. ERIC Educational Reports. http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_pric/is_198709/ai_3395990410/

Smith, Mark K. (2001; 2009) 'Facilitating learning and change in groups.” The Encyclopaedia of Informal Education. [www.infed.org/biblio/b-facil.htm].